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GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY 
OF  CRATER  LAKE 

CRATER  LAKE  NATIONAL  PARK 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

1912 


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This  publication  may  be  purchased  from  the  vSuperintendent  of  D 
ments,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  lo  cents. 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  CRATER  LAKE,  OREGON. 


By  J.  S.  D11.LER, 

United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Of  lakes  in  the  United  States  there  are  many  and  in  great  variety, 
but  of  crater  lakes  there  is  but  one  of  great  importance.  Crater  lakes 
are  lakes  which  occupy  the  craters  of  volcanoes  or  pits  (calders)  of  vol- 
canic origin.  They  are  most  abundant  in  Italy  and  Central  America, 
regions  in  which  volcanoes  are  still  active ;  and  they  occur  also  in  France, 
Germany,  India,  Hawaii,  and  other  parts  of  the  world  where  volcanism 
has  played  an  important  role  in  its  geologic  history. 

The  one  in  the  United  States  belongs  to  the  great  volcanic  field  of  the 
Northwest.  Crater  Lake  of  southern  Oregon  lies  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
Cascade  Range,  and,  while  it  is  especially  attractive  to  the  geologist  on 
account  of  its  remarkable  geologic  history,  it  is  equally  inviting  to  the 
tourist  and  others  in  search  of  health  and  pleasure  by  communion  with 
the  beautiful  and  sublime  in  nature.  By  the  act  of  May  22,  1902,  a 
tract  around  this  lake  having  an  area  of  159,360  acres  was  set  aside  as  a 
national  park^ 

According  to  W.  G.  Steel  ^  the  lake  was  first  seen  by  white  men  in 
1853.  It  had  long  previously  been  known  to  the  Indians,  whose  legends 
have  contributed  a  name,  Llao  Rock,  to  one  of  the  prominences  of  its 
rim.  They  regarded  the  lake  with  awe  as  an  abode  of  the  Great  Spirit. 
Prospectors  were  the  earliest  explorers  of  the  lake.^  The  first  travelers 
of  note  who  visited  the  lake  were  Lord  Maxwell  and  Mr.  Bentley,  who 
in  1872,  with  Capt.  O.  C.  Applegate,  of  Modoc  war  fame,  and  three  others, 
made  a  boat  trip  along  its  borders  and  named  several  of  the  prominences 
on  the  rim  after  members  of  the  party .^  Mrs.  F.  F.  Victor  saw  the  lake 
in  1873,  and  briefly  describes  it  in  Atlantis  Arisen.*  The  same  year 
Mr.  S.  A.  Clarke  gave  an  interesting  account  of  the  lake  in  the  December 
number  of  the  Overland  Monthly. 

The  first  Geological  Survey  party  visited  the  lake  in  1883,  when  Everett 
Hayden  and  the  writer,  after  spending  several  days  in  examining  the 
rim,  tumbled  logs  over  the  cliflts  to  the  water's  edge,  lashed  them  together 
with  ropes  to  make  a  raft,  and  paddled  over  to  the  island.     In  1886, 

>  The  Mountains  of  Oregon,  by  W.  G.  Steel,  1890,  p.  13. 

'  The  discovery  and  early  history  of  Crater  Lake,  by  M.  W.  Gorman,  Mazama,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  Crater 
Lake  number,  1897,  159  pages.  This  number  contains  much  valuable  information  concerning  Crater 
Lake  in  addition  to  that  referred  to. 

3  The  names  Watchman,  Glacier,  Llao,  and  Vidae,  which  appear  on  the  map  of  the  lake,  have  been 
adopted  by  the  United  States  Board  on  Geographic  Names. 

*  Atlantis  Arisen,  by  Mrs.  Francis  Fuller  Victor,  p.  179. 

3 

521297 


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4  GEOtOGlCAt  KISf'C>Ry  ;0F;  Cj^ATER   LAKE,    OREGON. 

under  the  direction  of  Capt.  C.  E.  Button,  many  soundings  of  the  lake 
were  made  by  W.  G.  Steel,  and  a  topographic  map  of  the  vicinity  was 
prepared  by  Mark  B.  Kerr  and  Eugene  Ricksecker.  Button  was  the  first 
to  discover  the  more  novel  and  salient  features  in  the  geological  history 


Fig.  I. — Map  showing  routes  to  Crater  Lake. 

of  the  lake,  of  which  he  has  given  for  his  entertaining  pen  an  all  too  brief 
account.* 

Under  the  inspiration  of  the  "Mazamas,"  a  society  of  mountain  climb- 
ers at  Portland,  Oreg.,^  a  more  extended  study  of  the  lake  was  made  by 

1  Science,  Voi.  VII,  1886,  p.    179-182,    and    Eighth   Annual  Report  of  the   United  States   Geological 
Survey,  p.  156-159. 

2  The  National  Geographic  Magazine,  Vol.  VIII,  1897,  page  58. 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON.  5 

Government  parties  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Fish  Com- 
mission, and  the  Geological  Survey.* 


Fig.  2. — Map  op  Crater  Lake  National  Park. 

A  topographic  map  of  the  park  on  a  scale  of  one  mile  to  the  inch  may  be  purchased  from  the  Director 

of  the  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  s  cents. 

Crater  Lake  is  deeply  set  in  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range,  about  65 
miles  north  of  the  California  line.     It  may  be  reached,  as  shown  in  figure  i , 

1  Crater  Lake  National  Park,  United  States  Geological  Survey  Professional  Paper  No.  3,  1902,  167  pages, 
13  plates,  by  J.  S.  Diller.  and  H.  B.  Patton. 


6  GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CRATER    LAKE,    OREGON. 

by  two  routes,  one  from  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  at  Medford  or  Ash- 
land on  the  west,  and  the  other  from  the  Southern  Pacific  at  Klamath 
Falls  or  Big  Spring,  just  beyond  the  limit  of  the  map  (fig.  i)  on  the  east. 
Ashland  and  Medford  are  in  Rogue  River  Valley,  which  marks  the  line 
between  the  Klamath  Mountains  of  the  Coast  Range  on  the  west  and  the 
Cascade  Range  on  the  east.  The  journey  from  Medford  by  private  con- 
ance  80  miles  to  Crater  Lake  affords  a  good  opportunity  to  observ^e  some 
of  the  most  important  features  of  this  great  pile  of  lavas. z'^^^.  The  Cascade 
Range  in  southern  Oregon  is  a  broad  irregular  platform,  terminating 
rather  abruptly  in  places  upon  its  borders,  especially  to  the  westward, 


Fig.  3. — Cones  and  Coulees  of  the  summit  platform  of  the  Cascade  Range. 
Union  Peak  on  the  right;  Mount  McLaughlin  (Pitt)  in  the  distance. 

where  the  underlying  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  sediments  come  to  the 
surface.  It  is  surmounted  by  volcanic  cones  and  coulees  (fig.  3) ,  which 
are  generally  smooth,  but  sometimes  rough  and  rugged.  The  cones  vary 
greatly  in  size  and  are  distributed  without  regularity.  Each  has  been 
an  active  volcano.  The  fragments  blown  out  by  violent  eruption  have 
fallen  upon  the  volcanic  orifice  from  which  they  issued  and  built  up 
cinder  cones.  From  their  bases  have  spread  streams  of  lava  (coulees), 
raising  the  general  level  of  the  country  between  the  cones.  From  some 
vents  by  many  eruptions,  both  explosive  and  effusive,  large  cones,  like 
McLoughlin,  Shasta,  and  Hood,  have  been  built  up.  Were  we  to  examine 
their  internal  structure,  exposed  in  the  walls  of  the  canyons  car\'ed  in 
their  slopes,  we  should  find  them  composed  of  overlapping  layers  of  lava 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF    CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON.  7 

and  volcanic  conglomerate,  a  structure  which  is  well  illustrated  in  the  rim 
of  Crater  Lake. 

The  journey  from  Ashland  by  the  Dead  Indian  road  crosses  the  range 
where  the  average  altitude  is  less  than  5,000  feet.  The  road  passes 
within  a  few  miles  of  Mount  McLoughlin  and  skirts  Pelican  Bay  of  Kla- 
math Lake,  famous  for  its  fishing.     After  following  northward  for  some  20 


Fig.  4. — ^Jointed  tuff  of  Anna  Creek  Canyon. 

miles  along  the  eastern  foot  of  the  range,  it  ascends  the  eastern  slope, 
along  the  castled  canyon  of  Anna  Creek  to  the  rim  of  Crater  Lake. 

From  Medford  or  Gold  Hill  the  trip  is  a  trifle  shorter  by  the  Rogue 
River  road.  It  affords  some  fine  views  of  the  canyons  and  rapids  of 
that  turbulent  stream  and  of  the  high  falls,  where  it  receives  its  afflu- 
ents. Striking  features  along  both  roads,  within  20  miles  of  the  lake, 
are  the  plains  developed  upon  a  great  mass  of  detritus  filling  the  valleys. 
Across  these  plains  Anna  Creek  and  Rogue  River  have  carved  deep,  nar- 
row canyons  with  finely  sculptured  walls  (fig.  4),  which  the  roads  follow 
for  some  distance. 


8 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF    CRATER    LAKE,    OREGON. 


With  the  completion  of  the  railroad  on  the  east  the  approach  to  the 
lake  was  greatly  facilitated.  Leaving  the  railroad  near  Klamath  Falls, 
a  small  steamer  crosses  Upper  Klamath  Lake  and  connects  with  auto- 
mobile stages  to  the  lake. 

Within  the  park,  approaching  the  lake  from  any  side,  the  observer 
sees,  as  in  the  distant  part  of  figure  5,  a  broad  cluster  of  gentle  peaks 
rising  about  a  thousand  feet  above  the  general  crest  of  the  range  on 
which  they  stand,  but  not  until  after  he  has  left  the  main  road,  3  miles 
from  the  lake,  does  he  begin  to  feel  the  steepness  of  the  ascent.  The  way 
winds  over  a  large  moraine  littered  with  lava  bowlders  and  well  studded 


Fig.  5. — Rim  op  Crater  Lake  as  seen  from  the  south  on  Anna  Creek. 

with  firs.  Arriving  at  the  crest,  the  lake  in  all  its  majestic  beauty,  as  it 
appears  in  figure  6,  comes  suddenly  upon  the  scene,  and  is  profoundly 
impressive.  Descending  the  wooded  slope  a  short  distance  within  the 
rim  to  Victor  Rock,  an  excellent  general  view  of  the  lake  is  obtained. 
Upon  the  left  is  the  western  iSorder  of  the  lake,  and  upon  the  right  its 
southern  border  (fig.  7).  The  eye  beholds  20  miles  of  unbroken  cliffs 
ranging  from  over  500  to  nearly  2,000  feet  in  height,  encircling  a  deep 
blue  sheet  of  placid  water,  in  which  the  mirrored  walls  vie  with  the 
originals  in  brilliancy  and  greatly  enhance  the  depth  of  the  prospect. 
The  first  point  to  fix  our  fascinated  gaze  is  Wizard  Island,  lying  nearly 
-^12  miles  away,  near  the  western  margin  of  the  lake.     Its  irregular  western 


GEOLOGICAI.   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON.  g 

edge  and  the  steep  but  symmetrical  truncated  cone  in  the  eastern  por- 
tion are  very  suggestive  of  volcanic  origin.     We  can  not,  however,  in- 


FiG.  6. — Crater  Lake  as  seen  from  near  Victor  Rock  showing  the  Watch- 
man GivAciER  Peak,  Wizard  Island,  The  Devils  Backbone,  Llao  Rock,  Pumice 
Point,  and  Mount  Thielsen  in  the  distance. 

Photograph  copyrighted  by  Kiser  Photo.  Co.,  Portland,  Greg. 


Fig.  7. — The  southern  border  of  Crater  Lake  as  seen  from  Castle  Crest. 

dulge  our  first  impulse  to  go  at  once  to  the  island,  for  the  various  features, 
of  the  rim  are  of  greater  importance  in  unraveling  the  earlier  stages  of 
its  geological  history. 


30920 — 12- 


lO  GEOLOGICAIv   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON. 

V  The  outer  and  inner  slopes  of  the  rim  are  in  strong  contrast;  while 
the  one  is  gentle,  ranging  in  general  from  io°  to  15°,  the  other  is  abrupt 
and  full  of  clififs,  as  shown  in  figure  8.  This  difference  is  well  expressed 
also  by  the  contour  map  in  figure  13.  The  vertical  interv^al  of  the  con- 
tours is  50  feet.  Upon  the  inner  slope  the  contours  are  crowded  close 
together  to  show  a  slope  so  steep  that  one  needs  to  travel  but  a  little  w^ay 
to  descend  50  feet,  while  upon  the  outer  slope  the  contours  are  so  far 
apart  that  to  descend  50  feet  one  needs  to  travel  a  considerable  portion 
of  a  mile.  The  outer  slope  at  all  points  is  away  from  the  lake,  and  as 
the  rim  rises  at  least  i  ,000  feet  above  the  general  summit  of  the  range, 
it  is  evidently  the  basal  portion  of  a  great  hollow  cone  in  which  the  lake 
is  contained. 

In  addition  to  the  strong  contrast  between  the  outer  and  inner  slopes 
of  the  rim  the  map  shows  the  occurrence  of  a  number  of  small  cones 
upon  the  outer  slope  of  the  great  cone.  These  adnate  9ones  are  of 
peculiar  significance  when  we  come  to  consider  the  volcanic  rocks  of 
which  the  region  is  composed.  The  rim  is  ribbed  by  ridges  and  spurs 
radiating  from  the  lake,  and  the  head  of  each  spur  is  marked  by  a  promi- 
nence on  the  crest  of  the  rim.  The  variation  in  the  altitude  of  the  rim 
crest  is  i  ,456  feet  (from  about  6,700  at  Kerr  Notch  to  8,156  feet  at  Glacier 
Peak)  with  seven  points  rising  above  8,000  feet.  The  crest  generally  is 
passable,  so  that  a  pedestrian  may  follow  it  continuously  around  the 
lake,  with  the  exception  of  short  intervals  about  the  notches  in  the 
southern  side.  At  many  points  the  best  going  is  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  crest,  where  the  open  slope,  generally  well  marked  wnth  deer  trails 
over  beds  of  pumice,  affords  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  lake. 
y--^^*^  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  glacial  phenomena  of  the 
outer  slope  of  the  rim.  There  are  scattered  bowlders  upon  the  surface, 
and  also  in  piles  of  glacial  moraine  (fig.  9) ,  which  contain  besides  bowl- 
ders nmch  gravel  and  sand.  Such  glacial  drift  is  spread  far  and  wide 
over  the  southern  and  western  portion  of  the  rim,  extending  down 
the  watercourses  in  some  cases  for  miles  to  broad  plains,  through  which 
the  present  streams  have  carv^ed  the  deep  and  picturesque  canyons 
already  observed  on  the  ascent.  At  inaiiy__poirLtjs  the  lavas  jare,:wdl 
rounded,  smoothed,  and  striated  by  glacial  action.  This  is  true  of  the 
ridges  as  w^ell  as  of  the  valleys,  and  the  distribution  of  these  marks  is 
coextensive  with  that  of  the  glacial  detritus. 
"^  A  feature  that  is  particularly  impressive  to  the  geologist  making  a 
trip  around  the  lake  on  the  rim  crest  is  the  general  occurrence  of  polished 
and  striated  rocks,  in  place  on  the  very  brow  of  the  cliff  overlooking 
the  lake.  The  best  displays  are  along  the  crest  for  3  miles  northwest  of 
Victor  Rock  (fig.  10),  but  they  occur  also  on  the  slopes  of  Llao  Rock,  Round- 
top,  Kerr  Notch,  and  Eagle  Crags,  thus  completing  the  circuit  of  the  lake. 
On  the  adjacent  slope  toward  the  lake  the  same  rocks  present  rough 
fractured  surfaces,  showing  no  strise.     The  glaciation  of  the   rim  is  a 


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GEOI.OGICAI,   HISTORY   OF    CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON. 


feature  of  its  outer  slope  only,  but,  as  shown  in  figure  lo,  it  reaches  up 
to  the  very  crest.  |fThe  glaciers  armed  with  stones  in  their  lower  parts, 
that  striated  the  crown  of  the  rim,  must  have  come  down  from  above, 
and  it  is  evident  that  the  topographic  conditions  of  to-day  afford  no 
such  source  of  supply/  The  formation  of  glaciers  requires  an. elevation 
extending  above  the  snow  line  to  afford  a  gathering  ground  for  the  snow 
that  it  may  accumulate,  and  under  the  influence  of  gravity  descend  to 
develop. glaciers  lower  down  on  the  mountain  slopes.  Ipuring  the  glacial 
period  Crater  Lake  did  not -exist.  1  Its  site  must  then  have  been  occupied 
by  a  mountain  to  furnish  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  extensive 
glaciation  of  the  rim,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  glacial  phenomena  indi- 


FiG.  9. — Glacial  moraine  south  of  Victor  Rock. 

cates  that  the  peak  was  a  large  one,  rivaling,  apparently,  the  highest 
peaks  of  the  range. 
[S  "^The  Mazamas  held  a  meeting  in  August,  1896,  at  Crater  Lake  in  con- 
nection with  the  Crater  Lake  clubs  of  Medford,  Ashland,  and  Klamath 
Falls,  of  the  same  State.  Recognizing  that  the  high  mountain  which 
once  occupied  the  place  of  the  lake  was  nameless,  they  christened  it, 
with  appropriate  ceremonies.  Mount  Mazama.  The  rim  of  the  lake  is  a 
remnant  of  Mount  Mazama,  but  when  the  name  is  used  in  this  paper 
reference  is  intended  more  especially  to  that  part  which  has  disappeared. 
The  inner  slope  of  the  rim,  so  well  in  view  from  Victor  Rock,  although 
precipitous,  is  not  a  continuous  cliff.  It  is  made  up  of  many  cliffs,  whose 
horizontal  extent  is  generally   much  greater  than  the  vertical.     The 


GEOLOGICAI.   HISTORY   OP   CRATER   I.AKE,   OREGON.  I3 

cliffs  are  in  ledges,  and  sometimes  the  whole  slope  from  crest  to  shore  is 
one  great  cliff,  not  absolutely  vertical,  it  is  true,  but  yet  at  so  high  an 
angle  as  to  make  it  far  beyond  the  possibility  of  climbing.  Dutton  Cliff 
on  the  southern  and  Llao  Rock  on  the  northern  borders  of  the  lake  are 
the  greatest  cliffs  of  the  rim.  Besides  cliffs,  the  other  elements  of  the 
inner  slope  are  forests  and  talus,  and  these  make  it  possible  at  a  few  points 
to  approach  the  lake,  not  with  great  ease,  but  yet,  care  being  taken,  with 
little  danger.     Southwest  of  the  lake  the  inner  slope,  clearly  seen  from 


Fig.  10. — Glaciated  Crest  of  Rim  of  Crater  Lake. 

Photograph  by  M.  M.  Hazeltine,  courtesy  of  Smithsonian  Institution.  • 

Victor  Rock,  is  pretty  well  wooded,  and  from  near  the  end  of  the  road, 
just  east  of  Victor  Rock,  a  steep  trail  descends  to  the  water.  Where 
fresh  talus  slopes  prevail  there  are  no  trees,  and  the  loose  material  main- 
tains the  steepest  slope  possible  without  sliding.  Such  slopes  are  well 
displayed  along  the  western  shore  opposite  the  island  and  near  the 
northeast  corner  of  the  lake  under  the  Palisades,  illustrated  in  figure  11. 
At  this  point  the  rim  is  only  575  feet  high,  and  a  long  slide,  called  from 
its  shape  the  Wineglass,  reaches  from  crest  to  shore. 

The  best  views  of  the  rim  are  obtained  from  a  boat  on  the  lake,  which 
affords  an  opportunity  to  examine  in  detail  the  position  and  structure  of 


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GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,   OREGON. 


15 


the  cliffs.  They  are  composed  wholly  of  volcanic  conglomerate  and 
streams  of  lava  arranged  in  layers,  as  shown  in  figure  12,  that  dip  into  the 
rim  and  awav  from  the  lake  on  all  sides.     Both  forms  of  volcanic  material 

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are  well  exposed  on  the  trail  descending  the  inner  slope,  and,  although 
most  of  the  cliffs  are  of  lava,  many  are  of  conglomerate. 

On  arriving  at  the  water's  edge  the  observer  is  struck  with  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  beach.  (See  fig.  14.)  The  steep  slopes  above  the  surface  of 
the  lake  continue  beneath  its  waters  to  great  depths.  Here  and  there 
upon  the  shore,  where  a  rill  descends  from  a  melting  snow  bank  near  the 
crest,  a  small  delta  deposit  makes  a  little  shallow,  turning  the  deep-blue 
water  to  pale  green. 


Fig.   12. — Southern  rim  01?  Crater  Lake  from  Vidae  Cliff  to  Garfield  Peak, 
showing  sheets  of  lava  dipping  away  from  the  lake. 

As  the  boat  skirts  the  western  shore  and  passes  toward  Llao  Rock  the 
layered  structure  of  the  rim  is  evident,  although  it  is  fairly  well  illustrated 
on  all  sides.  On  the  whole  the  lava  streams  predominate,  although 
there  is  much  conglomerate.  Of  all  the  flows  exposed  upon  the 
inner  slope  that  of  Llao  Rock  is  most  prominent  and  interesting. 
In  the  middle  it  is  over  1,200  feet  thick,  and  fills  an  ancient 
valley  down  the  outer  slope  of  the  rim.  (See  fig.  15.)  Upon 
either  side  it  tapers  to  a  thin  edge  against  the  upper  slope  of  the  valley. 
To  the  lake  it  presents  a  sheer  cliff — that  is,  it  is  abruptly  cut  off— and 
one  wonders  how  much  farther  it  may  have  extended  in  that  direction. 
Beneath  the  rock  the  outline  of  the  valley  in  cross  section  is  evident.  It 
rests  upon  pumice  and  many  layers  of  older  lavas,  forming  the  rim  down 
to  the  water's  edge.     The  direction  of  flow  in  this  great  lava  stream 


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Photograph  copyrighted  by  Kiser  Photo  Co.,  Portland,  Oreg. 


GEOIvOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,   OREGON. 


19 


forces  us  to  believe  that  it  was  erupted  from  a  large  volcano  which  once 
stood  upon  the  site  of  the  lake,  ^very  layer  of  lava  in  the  rim  is  a  coulee, 
dipping  away  from  the  lake.  This  is  especially  well  shown  in  the  can- 
yon of  Sun  Creek  (see  fig.  12),  cut  in  its  outer  slope.  The  sections  of 
these  radiating  flows  exposed  upon  the  inner  slope  of  the  rim  all  tell  the 
same  story  as  to  their  source.  By  projecting  the  lavas  in  their  course^ 
toward  a  common  center  we  can  reconstruct  in  fancy  the  great^ volcano, 
Mount  Mazama,  which  once  occupied  the  place  of  the  lake,  and,  like 
Shasta  or  Rainier,  formed  a  great  landmark  of  the  region. 

Proceeding  eastward  from  Llao  Rock  the  rim  loses  somewhat  in  height, 
and  at  the  head  of  Cleetwood  Cove  one  sees  the  remarkable  spectacle  of  a 


J^^-y. 


Fig.   15. — Llao  Rock  flow  filling  an  earlier  valley  op  the  rim. 

lava  stream  descending  the  inner  slope  of  the  rin^:  It  is  the  only  one  that 
has  behaved  in  this  way,  and  its  action  throws  much  light  upon  the 
disappearance  of  Mount  Mazama. 

The  Palisades  are  less  than  600  feet  in  elevation  above  the  lake,  and  are 
composed  almost  wholly  of  one  great  flow.  The  streams  of  lava  extend- 
ing northeast  from  this  portion  of  the  rim  are  broad  and  much  younger 
in  appearance  than  those  forming  the  great  cliffs  south  of  the  lake,  where 
the  flows  are  thinner  and  more  numerous. 

Roundtop  is  a  dome-shaped  hill  over  the  eastern  end  of  the  Palisades, 
and  is  made  up  chiefly  of  the  lava  stream  that  formed  the  Palisades,  over- 
lain by  two  sheets  of  pumice  separated  by  a  layer  of  dacite.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  Palisade  flow,  where  best  exposed  upon  the  lakeward 
slope  of  Roundtop,  bears  glacial  striae,  that  extend  beneath  the  layers  of 
pumice  and  dacite  of  later  eruption  from  Mount  Mazama.     (See  figs.  1 1 


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GEOLOGICAIv   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,   OREGON. 


21 


and  19.)  It  is  evident  from  this  relation  that  Mount  Mazama  was  an 
active  volcano  during  the  glacial  period.  The  occurrence  of  eruptions 
from  a  snowcapped  volcano  must  necessarily  produce  great  floods,  and 
these  conditions  may  account  in  some  measure  at  least  for  the  detritus- 
filled  valleys  of  the  streams  rising  on  the  rim  of  Crater  Lake. 

Returning  from  this  glacial  digression  to  the  boat  trip  on  the  lake,  it  is 
observed  upon  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake  that  Redcloud  Cliff  is  rendered 
beautiful  by  the  pinnacles  of  reddish  tuff  near  the  summit,  where  it  is 
capped  by  a  great,  dark  flow  of  dacite,  filling  a  valley  in  the  older  rim 
and  extending  far  to  the  northeast.  Here  the  springs  begin  to  gush  from 
the  inner  slope  and  cascade  their  foaming  rills  to  the  lake.  They  recur 
at  Sentinel  Rock,  Button  Cliff,  and  especially  under  Eagle  Crags,  as  well 
as  farther  westward.  Their  sources  in  many  cases  can  be  seen  in  the 
banks  of  snow  above,  but  in  others  they  gush  forth  as  real  springs,  whose 
water  must  find  its  way  in  from  the  snow  upon  the  outer  slope. 


Fig.  17. — The  Phantom  Ship. 

The  boldest  portion  of  the  rim,  excepting  perhaps  Llao  Rock,  is  Button 
Cliff,  which  is  made  more  impressive  by  the  deep  U -shape  notches  on 
either  side.  The  notches  mark  points  where  the  canyons  of  Sun  and 
Sand  Creeks  pass  through  the  rim  to  the  cliff  overlooking  the  lake,  as 
shown  in  figure  16.  These  canyons,  due  to  erosion  on  lines  of  drainage* 
belong  to  the  period  when  the  topographic  conditions  in  that  region  were 
quite  unlike  those  of  to-day.  They  were  carved  out  by  streams  of  ice 
and  water  descending  from  a  point  over  the  lake,  and  their  presence* 
ending  as  they  do  in  the  air  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  present  water 
level,  affords  strong  evidencejji  favor  of  the  former  reality  of  Mount 
Mazama.  ) 

The  Phantom  Ship  (fig.  17)  is  a  craggy  little  islet  near  the  border  of 
the  lake  under  Button  Cliff.     Its  rugged  hull,  with  rocks  towering  like 


22 


GEOLOGICAIv   HISTORY    OF    CRATER    LAKE,    OREGON. 


the  masts  of  a  ship,  suggests  the  name,  and,  phantom  like,  it  disappears 
when  viewed  in  certain  lights  from  the  western  rim.  Standing  in  line 
with  an  arete  that  descends  from  an  angle  of  the  cliff,  it  possibly  marks 
a  continuation  of  the  sharp  spur  beneath  the  waters,  or  perhaps,  but  much 
less  likely,  it  is  a  block  slid  down  from  the  cliff.  Whatever  its  history, 
it  attracts  everyone  by  its  beauty  and  winsomeness. 

At  times  of  volcanic  eruption  the  lava  rises  within  the  volcano  until 
it  either  overflows  the  crater  at  the  top  or,  by  the  great  pressure  of  the 


Fig.  i8. — The  Devils  Backbone  as  seen  from  Wizard  Island. 

column,  bursts  open  the  sides  of  the  volcano  and  escapes  through  the 
fissure  to  the  surface.  In  the  latter  case,  as  the  molten  material  cools^ 
the  fissure  becomes  filled  with  solid  lava  and  forms  a  dike.  The  best 
example  of  this  sort  about  Crater  Lake  appears  along  the  inner  slope 
directly  north  of  Wizard  Island,  and  is  locally  known  as  the  Devils  Back- 
bone. It  is  shown  in  figure  5  across  the  left  end  of  Wizard  Island  and 
in  figure  18  a  nearer  view  from  the  island  itself.  This  dike  rock,  standing 
on  edge,  varies  from  5  to  25  feet  in  thickness  and  cuts  the  rim  from  water 
to  crest.     Dikes  are  most  numerous  in  the  older  portion  of  the  rim  under 


GEOLOGICAI^   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   I.AKE,    OREGON. 


23 


Llao  Rock.  They  do  not  cut  up  through  Llao  Rock  and  are  clearly 
older  than  the  lava  of  which  that  rock  is  formed.  Dikes  occur  at  inter- 
vals all  around  the  lake  and  radiate  from  it,  suggesting  that  the  central 
volcanic  vent  from  which  they  issued  must  have  been  Mount  Mazama. 
.  '-^There  is  another  important  feature  concerning  the  kinds  of  volcanic 
rocks  and  their  order  of  eruption  and  distribution  about  the  rim  of  Crater 
Lake  as  shown  on  the  accompanying  reconnoissance  map,  figure  13,  that 
is  of  much  interest  to  the  geologist.  All  the  older  lavas  comprising  the 
inner  slope  of  the  rim,  especially  toward  the  water's  edge,  are  andesites. 
The  newer  ones,  forming  the  top  of  the  rim  in-Llao  Rock,  Pumice  Point, 
Round  top,  and  the  Rugged  Crest  about  the  head  of  Cleetwood  Cove  as 


Fig.  19.^ — Layers  of  dacitic  pumice  and  tuff  in  Pumice  Point. 

LYING   ANDESITIC  LAVA   BEARS   GLACIAL  STRI^. 


The  under- 


well  as  at  Cloitdcaf ,  are  dacites.  Other  later  flows,  all  of  which  escaped 
from  the  smaller  adnate  cones  upon  the  outer  slope  of  the  rim,  are  basalts. 
The  eruptions  began  with  lavas  containing  a  medium  amount  of  silica 
(andesites),  and  after  long-continued  activity  lavas  both  richer  (dacites) 
and  poorer  (basalts)  in  silica  follow,  giving  a  completeness  to  the  products 
of  this  great  volcanic  center  that  make  it  an  interesting  field  of  study. 
Furthermore,  the  remarkable  opportunity  afforded  by  the  dissected 
volcano  for  the  examination  of  its  structure  and  succession  of  lavas  is 
unsurpassed.  It  should  be  stated,  before  dismissing  the  kinds  of  lava, 
that  there  are  some  dacites  in  the  Sun  Creek  Canyon  south  of  the  lake 
that  appear  to  be  older  than  those  upon  the  north  side,  and  that  the  final 
lava  of  the  region  on  Wizard  Island  is  andesite. 


24 


GEOLOGIC AI.   HISTORY   OF   CRATER    LAKE,    OREGON. 


The  glaciation  and  structure  of  the  rim  clearly  establish  the  former 
existence  of  Mount  Mazama,  but  there  may  well  be  doubt  as  to  its  exact 
form  and  size.  Judging  from  the  fact  that  Mount  Shasta  and  the  rim 
of  Crater  Lake  have  the  same  diameter  at  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet,  and 
that  their  lavas  are  similar,  it  may  with  some  reason  be  inferred  that 
Mount  Mazama  and  Mount  Shasta  were  nearly  of  equal  height.  The 
slopes  of  Mount  Shasta  may  be  somewhat  steeper  than  those  of  the  rim  of 
Crater  Lake  at  an  equal  altitude,  but  the  glaciation  of  the  rim  is  such  as 
to  require  a  large  peak  Tor  its  source.     A  restoration  of  Mount  Mazama 


Fig.  20. — Restoration  op  Mount  Mazama. 


based  on  a  photograph  of  the  rim  of  Crater  Lake  as  seen  from  the  south- 
west is  shown  in  figure  20. 

In  figure  22  is  given  a  section  of  Crater  Lake  and  its  rim,  with  the 
probable  outline  of  Mount  Mazama,  and  in  figure  23  is  given  a  profile 
and  surface  sketch  of  a  cross  section  of  the  natural  park  through  Crater 
Lake.  Wonderful  as  the  lake,  encircled  by  cliffs,  may  be,  it  serves  but 
to  conceal  in  part  the  greatest  wonder — that  is,  the  enormous  pit  or 
caldera  which  is  half  filled  by  the  lake.  The  caldera  is  4,000  feet  deep. 
An  impressive  illustration  of  it  is  seen  in  figure  21  which  was  prepared 
from  a  photograph  of  a  model  of  Crater  Lake  now  in  the  United  States 
National  Museum.     The  water  surface  is  represented  by  glass,  so  that 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON. 


25 


one  may  see  through  to  the  bottom  and  get  the  full  impression  of  the 
depth  of  this  tremendous  hole  in  the  ground.  It  extends  from  the  top  of 
the  rim,  which  is  the  very  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range,  halfway  down 
to  the  sea  level,  and  nearly  a  square  mile  of  its  bottom  is  below  the  level 
of  Upper  Klamath  Lake  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  range.  The  volume 
of  the  caldera  is  nearly  a  dozen  cubic  miles,  and  if  we  add  the  volume  of 
the  lost  Mount  Mazama  that  amount  would  be  increased  by  at  least  one- 
half.  How  was  it  possible  to  remove  so  large  a  mass  and  in  process 
develop  so  great  a  depression  ? 


Fig.  21. — Caldera  of  Crater  Lake  left  by  the  engulfment  of  Mount  Mazama. 

The  caldera  is  completely  inclosed,  so  that  it  can  not  be  regarded  as 
an  effect  of  erosion.  The  volcanic  origin  of  everything  about  the  lake 
would  suggest  in  a  general  way  that  this  great  revolution  must  have 
been  wrought  by  volcanism,  either  blown  out  by  a  great  volcanic  explo- 
sion or  swallowed  up  by  an  equally  great  engulfment.  It  is  well  known 
that  pits  have  been  produced  by  volcanic  explosions,  and  some  of  them 
are  occupied  by  lakes  of  the  kind  usually  called  crater  lakes.  Depres- 
sions produced  in  this  way,  however,  are,  with  rare  exceptions,  surrounded 
by  rims  composed  of  the  fragmental  material  blown  out  from  the  de- 
pression. 


26  GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON. 

At  first  sight  the  rim  about  Crater  Lake  suggests  that  the  caldera 
was  produced  by  an  explosion,  and  the  occurrence  of  much  pumice  in 
that  region  lends  support  to  this  preliminary  view;  but  on  careful  exami- 
nation we  find,  as  already  stated,  that  the  rim  is  not  made  up  of  frag- 
ments blown  from  the  pit,  but  of  layers  of  solid  lava  interbedded  with 
those  of  volcanic  conglomerate  erupted  from  Mount  Mazama  before  the 
caldera  originated.  The  moraines  deposited  by  glaciers  descending  from 
the  mountain  formed  the  Surface  around  a  large  part  of  the  rim,  and  as 
there  is  no  f ragmental  deposits  on  these  moraines,  it  is  evident  that  there 
is  nothing  whatever  to  indicate  any  explosive  action  in  connection  with 
the  formation  of  the  caldera. 

We  may  be  aided  in  understanding  the  possible  origin  of  the  caldera 
by  picturing  the  conditions  that  must  have  obtained  during  an  effusive 
eruption  of  Mount  Mazama.  At  such  a  time  the  column  of  molten  mate- 
rial rose  in  the  interior  of  the  mountain  until  it  overflowed  at  the  summit 
or  burst  open  the  sides  of  the  mountain  and  escaped  through  fissures. 


Mt  Mazama. 


Fig.  22. — Section  of  Crater   Lake  and  its   rim,  with  the  probable  outline 
OP  Mount  Mazama.     Structural  details  generalized. 

Vertical  and  horizontal  scales  the  same. 
Diagram  furnished  by  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Fissures  formed  in  this  way  usually  occur  high  on  the  slopes  of  the 
mountain.  If  instead,  however,  an  opening  were  effected  on  the  moun- 
tain side  at  a  much  lower  level — say  some  thousands  of  feet  below  the 
summit — and  the  molten  material  escaped,  the  mountain  would  be  left 
hollow,  and  the  summit,  having  so  much  of  its  support  removed,  might 
cave  in  and  disappear  in  the  molten  reservoir. 

Something  of  this  sort  is  described  by  Prof.  Dana  as  occurring  at 
Kilauea,  in  Hawaii.  The  lake  in  that  case  is  not  water,  but  molten  lava, 
for  Kilauea  is  yet  an  active  volcano.  In  1 840  there  was  an  eruption  from 
the  slopes  of  Kilauea,  27  miles  distant  from  the  lake  and  over  4,000  feet 
below  its  level.  The  column  of  lava  represented  by  the  lake  of  molten 
material  in  Kilauea  sank  away  in  connection  with  this  eruption  to  a 
depth  of  385  feet,  and  the  floor  of  the  region  immediately  surrounding 
the  lake,  left  without  support,  tumbled  into  the  depression.  In  the 
intervals  between  eruptions  the  molten  column  rises  again  toward  the 
surface,  only  to  be  lowered  by  subsequent  eruptions,  and  the  subsidence 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY   OF   CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON. 


27 


is  not  always  accomplished  by  an  outflow  of  lava  upon 
the  surface.  Sometimes,  however,  it  gushes  forth  as 
a  great  fountain  a  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height. 

The  elevated  position  of  the  great  caldera  occupied 
by  Crater  Lake  makes  its  origin  by  subsidence  seem 
the  more  probable.  The  level  of  the  lowest  bed  of 
the  lake  reaches  the  surface  within  1 5  miles  down  the 
western  slope  of  the  range.  That  Mount  Mazama  was 
engulfed  is  plainly  suggested  by  the  behavior  of  its 
final  lava  stream.  The  greater  portion  of  this  last 
flow  descended  and  spread  over  the  outer  slope  of 
the  rim,  as  shown  in  figure  13,  but  from  the  thickest 
part  of  the  flow  where  it  fills  an  old  valley  at  the  head 
of  Cleetwood  Cove  (see  fig.  24)  some  of  the  same  lava, 
as  already  noted,  poured  down  the  inner  slope.  The 
only  plausible  explanation  of  this  phenomena  seems  to 
be  that  soon  after  the  final  eruption  of  Mount  Mazama, 
and  before  the  thickest  part  of  the  lava  effused  at  that 
time  had  solidified,  the  mountain  collapsed  and  sank 
away  and  the  yet  viscous  portion  of  the  stream  fol- 
lowed down  the  inner  slope  of  the  caldera.  It  should 
be  observed  also  that  the  lava  stream  collapsed  and 
formed  Rugged  Crest,  as  shown  in  figure  25. 

It  has  been  suggested,  but  perhaps  not  in  serious 
thought,  that  tne  cone  on  Wizard  Island  may  repre- 
sent the  summit  of  the  sunken  Mount  Mazama  pro- 
jecting above  the  water.  To  determine  the  truth 
of  the  matter  we  must  cross  over  to  the  island. 
Wizard  Island  has  two  portions — an  extremely  rough 
lava  field  and  a  cinder  cone.  These  parts  may  be 
distinguished  in  a  view  of  the  island  from  the  Watch- 
man but  are  more  distinct  in  an  illustration,  figure 
26,  as  seen  from  the  lake.  Only  a  small  portion  of  the 
lava  field  is  shown  in  the  foreground.  The  lava  is 
dark  and  has  a  much  more  basaltic  look  than  any  seen 
in  the  main  body  of  the  rim.  It  has  evidently  been 
erupted  from  the  base  of  the  cinder  cone  in  its  present 
position.  The  cinder  cone,  too,  is  a  perfect  little  vol- 
cano, with  steep  symmetrical  slopes  763  feet  in  height, 
and  surmounted  by  a  crater  80  feet  deep.  A  portion 
of  this  crater  is  shown  in  figure  27.  It  is  so  new  and 
fresh  that  it  is  scarcely  forested,  and  shows  no  trace  of 
weathering.  Instead  of  being  a  part  of  the  sunken 
Mount  Mazama,  it  is  an  entirely  new  volcano  built  up 
by  volcanic  action  upon   the  bottom  of  the  caldera 


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28 


GEOLOGICAI.   HISTORY   OI^   CRATER   I.AKE,    OREGON. 


since  the  subsidence.  Were  it  not  for  the  lake  the  whole  bottom  of  the 
caldera  could  be  examined,  and  it  is  possible  that  other  small  volcanic 
cones  might  be  found.  This  suggestion  is  borne  out  by  the  soundings  of 
the  lake,  which  appear  to  reveal  two  other  cases,  but  they  do  not  rise  to 
within  400  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  evident  that  the  vol- 
canic eruptions  upon  the  bottom  of  the  caldera  have  partially  filled  it 
up.     Originally  it  may  have  been  much  more  than  4,000  feet  deep. 

Given  the  caldera  with  water-tight  walls,  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
forming  Crater  Lake,  for  in  that  region  precipitation  is  greater  than 
evaporation.  Extensive  observations  upon  precipitation  and  evapora- 
tion have  not  been  made  at  Crater  Lake,  but,  judging  from  those  made 


Fig.  24. — A  portion  of  the  collapsed  lava  stream  at  Rugged  Crest  flowing 

DOWN  THE  INNER   SLOPE   OF  THE   RIM. 

at  nearest  points,  the  annual  precipitation  should  be  between  60  and  70 
inches,  while  the  annual  evaporation  is  about  46  inches.  The  average 
diameter  of  the  lake  is  nearly  5  miles.  Its  area,  including  Wizard  Island, 
is  about  21.30  square  miles.  The  drainage  area  inclosed  by  the  rim  of 
the  lake,  according  to  Mr.  E.  C.  Barnard,  is  27.48  square  miles.  During 
the  winter  great  masses  of  snow  drift  within  the  rim,  and  thus  consider- 
ably augment  the  normal  precipitation  of  the  lake.  The  lake  does  not 
fill  up  and  overflow.  The  surplus  water  must  have  a  subterranean  outlet, 
probably  toward  the  southeast,  where  the  region  is  traversed  by  exten- 
sive breaks  in  the  rocks,  and  abounds  in  excellent  springs. 


Fig.  25. — ^CoivLAPSED  lava  flow  op  Rugged  Crest.    The  bold  cliffs  among  the 

TREES   ON   BOTH  SIDES   ARE  REMNANTS   OF  THE  COLLAPSED  FLOW. 


Fig.   26.— Wizard  Island,  Cinder  Cone  and  lava  field. 


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GEOLOGICAIv   HISTORY    OF    CRATER   LAKE,    OREGON.  3 1 

The  color  of  the  lake  is  deep  blue,  excepting  along  the  borders,  where 
it  merges  into  various  shades  and  tints  of  green.  It  is  so  transparent 
that  even  on  a  hazy  day  a  white  dinner  plate  10  inches  in  diameter  may 
be  seen  at  a  depth  of  nearly  100  feet.  The  fish  it  contains  have  been 
introduced.  A  small  crustacean  flourishes  in  its  waters,  and  salamanders 
occur  in  abundance  locally  along  the  shore. 

The  level  of  the  lake  oscillates  with  the  seasons.  During  the  rainy 
winter  it  rises,  and  in  the  summer  it  falls.  In  August,  1896,  observa- 
tions were  made  for  22  days,  and  the  lake  sank  at  the  rate  of  i  inch  for 
every  five  or  six  days,  depending  somewhat  on  the  conditions  of  the 
weather.  The  Mazamas  have  established  a  water  gauge,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  an  extended  series  of  observations  would  be  obtained,  but 
the  ice  broke  it  off  the  next  winter.  The  annual  oscillation  of  the  lake  is 
about  4  feet. 

The  temperature  of  Crater  Lake  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable 
investigation.  While  the  earlier  observations  appeared  to  indicate  that 
the  lake  received  heat  from  its  bottom,  later  observations  show  that  the 
temperature  of  the  lake  everywhere  below  a  depth  of  300  feet  is  approxi- 
mately 39°  and  the  bottom  contains  no  appreciable  volcanic  heat. 

Aside  from  its  attractive  scenic  features.  Crater  Lake  affords  one  of 
the  most  interesting  and  instructive  fields  for  the  study  of  volcanic  geol- 
ogy to  be  found  anywhere  in  the  world.  Considered  in  all  its  aspects, 
it  ranks  with  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  the  Yosemite  Valley, 
and  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  but  with  an  individuality  that  is  superlative. 

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14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 
Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  priod  to  date  due. 
rISIwS  b<Sks  are  subject  to  immediate  recaU. 


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LD21A-60m-8,'70 
(N88378l0)476 — A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  Califorma 

Berkeley 


